Prehistoric ReligionIt would appear that religion in some form or other has been an essential element in the life and culture of humankind throughout the ages, going back far beyond the threshold of history. Moreover, many of the beliefs and practices of the later and higher religions, both ancient and modern, are rooted in their prehistoric prototypes of the Old Stone Age, a period lasting roughly from about 500,000 BC to 10,000 BC. This phase therefore has its place and significance in any study of the religions of the world, past or present. The difficulty, however, about such an inquiry is that nearly all the available data are confined to those concrete survivals like graves, sacred places and their contents, sculptures, bas-reliefs, engravings and paintings that have escaped the ravages of time. Their interpretation must be to some extent conjectural, but much of the material has survived, little changed, in everyday occurrence among the peoples who live today under conditions very similar to those of early humans. If employed with proper caution such evidence can afford useful and illuminating clues to the purpose and meaning of prehistoric religion.Since of all mysterious events the most prominent, puzzling, disturbing and arresting is that of death, it is not surprising that centred on what was to become a highly developed cult. Various forms of this seem to go back in China to a very early period in the Old Stone Age, estimated by Professor Zeuner as being in the region of 500,000 years ago. Thus, in the caves near Peking, indications have been found of the cutting off and preserving of the heads of some of those interred, either to keep them as trophies or to abstract their contents to be eaten in order to obtain the vitality of the deceased. And this is by no means an isolated instance, skulls having been treated in a similar way in Europe before the arrival of the species homo sapiens, towards the end of the fourth phase of the Pleistocene Ice Age, about 70,000 BC.Skulls found in the Placard cave in Charente in France had been made into drinking cups, which suggests that they were used for sacramental purposes. Similar vessels have been found in the Dor-dogne, near the village of Les Eyzies, now well known as a centre for decorated caves, and again at Puentc Vicsgo not far from Santander in Spain, in a cave called Castillo, full of paintings.In this phase of the Old Stone Age the corpse was often laid in a grave containing red ochreous powder, sometimes with quantities of shells and other objects in bone and ivory. The ochre represented blood, the life-giving agent, and there were often shells, like cowries, in the grave, shaped in the form of the portal through which the child enters the world. These emblems were associated with the female principle, and were widely used as fertility charms and givers of life. Therefore, if the dead were to live again in their own bodies, to colour the bodies red was an attempt to revivify them and make them serviceable to their occupants in the hereafter.Near Nordlingen in Bavaria, nests of skulls have been found, twenty-seven in each of two caves, and six in another. The heads had been intentionally cut off the trunk with flint knives after death, and then, dried and ceremonially preserved in the nest with the faces looking westward. Some were crushed, and had apparently been added later.It was not only the skull which received this ritual mortuary treatment however. A number of skeletons have been discovered, ceremonially interred with very great care and supplied with grave goods. At Le Moustier in the Dordogne, a great centre of mid-Palaeolithic culture, the skeleton of a youth was laid to rest on its right side with the forearm under the head and the cranium resting on a pillow of flint chips. Near the left hand was a fine oval axe, and a scraper was placed not far away with the burnt bones of a prehistoric ox above the skull, suggesting a funeral feast.In a low-roofed cave close to the village of La Chapelle-aux-Saints in the Department of Correze, a well-preserved Neanderthal skeleton was deposited with its face to the west in a pit dug in the middle of the marly floor, and wedged into position by several stones. The legs were folded, and near the hand was the foot of an ox, with the vertebral column of a., the outward expression of one of the most vital aspects of prehistoric religion, can be found in the treatment of the dead the earliest traces of religious belief and practice have clustered round the burial of the dead,.. Having little understanding of natural processes and their laws beyond their own observations, early people felt the need of establishing friendly and beneficial relations with the ultimate reality behind the mysterious phenomena around them, however this may have been interpreted. In all probability it constituted their conception of divine providence, the transcendent universal good, greater than themselves and the source of all bounty and beneficence, controlling their destiny. This concept of deity at once above and within the world was not very far removed from what in our idiom could be described as both transcendent and immanent.The Concept of DeityThis speculation was in line with the evolutionary thought of the period in which it arose, but it has now become apparent that it was too neat and tidy, too specialized and intellectualized an approach to explain accurately the origin and development of religion and of the concept of deity.The recurrence of this conception of deity in all states of culture and phases of religious development from prehistoric times onwards suggests that it arose spontaneously. It was the expression of some inborn thought and feeling, rather than a developed kind of knowledge about the universe and natural phenomena. Its highest expression undoubtedly has been in its monotheistic idea of god as the sole creator and sustainer of all things. So far from polytheism passing into monotheism, speculation about the cosmos and its processes led to the peopling of the natural order with a multitude of spirits and gods, making the supreme being a very vague and inoperative figure obscured in the mist of animism and polytheism, unless it became a pantheistic impersonal absolute “Every religion is a product of human evolution and has been conditioned by social environment’ In order to appreciate the essence of ‘religion’ it is required to be aware of the social and natural setting that has made it. Religion as a mode of expressing gratitude, fear, and submission, to some unknown power is an organized method developed by man. Following Hopkins, we will, in this chapter, attempt a study of the relation between the three major forces of -nature-society-religion to man. The idea I wish to maintain here is not ‘religion’ as something abstracted from society, but as a vital element of cultural activity. My focus will be on the study of religion across a range of different cultures, or a cross-cultural investigation, with a view to determine the underlying unity of all religions. The natural environment in which early man found himself was also his first social environment. Man and nature stood face to face in direct interaction, experiencing intimately all natural phenomena and changes. He was another member in the natural setting as all other biotics and a biotics. He was nature’s subject and not its master. As nature was evolving, so was man. The mystery of nature was yet undiscovered, unknown and so evoked a mixed feeling of awe and wonder! Man submitted to this power. This accord with a power that was beyond him, whose presence he experienced and whose assistance he needed was the initiation of religion. Hence, religion is one of the earliest, the most constant, and the deepest and most engrossing forms of human reaction towards nature. Nature therefore is man’s first religion and nature worship, as we will see, his first religious act. This chapter is concerned with the ‘religion of man’. Religion in some form or other has been an indispensable element in the life and culture of humankind throughout the ages. Going far beyond the doorsill of history, the focus of this chapter will be on the prehistoric forms of religion, look for a comprehensive definition of, try to understand its nature, its various modes of expression, discuss the religious types, and question the need and impact of religion in the modern society. A comparative study of the religious life of ancient civilizations will be necessary to prove or disprove the fact that all religious beliefs are rooted in the instinct for self- preservation. If religion appeared first as a necessity, does it continue to be so? Has there been a shift in the role religion played in contriving the course of human history?Another important inquiry will be to appraise the responsibility of Universal religion in fostering world peace. It will also be a worthwhile to estimate the importance of tribal religions in making the diverse cultures of the world. We will start with an attempt to define ‘Religion The starting point of religion must be sought in something more comprehensive: in a belief in a sacred power which transcends the universe, and is its ground and support. This may not have been personified, and so it would seem to have been a vague conception of providence as a creative and recreative power operating in the food quest, sex, fertility, birth, death and the sequence of the seasons. When the idea of this potency acquired an independent life of its own in its various aspects and functions, it found expression in spiritual beings, ghosts of the dead and departmentalized divinities. These had many different shapes and forms, and characteristic features and functions of their own, emerging from a common providential source, incalculable, strong and good, determining the operations of nature and the destinies of humanity, at once above and within the world of time and space. The starting point of religion must be sought in something more comprehensive: in a belief in a sacred power which transcends the universe, and is its ground and support. This may not have been personified, and so it would seem to have been a vague conception of providence as a creative and recreative power operating in the food quest, sex, fertility, birth, death and the sequence of the seasons. When the idea of this potency acquired an independent life of its own in its various aspects and functions, it found expression in spiritual beings, ghosts of the dead and departmentalized divinities. These had many different shapes and forms, and characteristic features and functions of their own, emerging from a common providential source, incalculable, strong and good, determining the operations of nature and the destinies of humanity, at once above and within the world of time and space.
Whether or not the mother-goddess was actually the earliest attempt to give expression to the concept of deity, as we have seen, her symbolism was the most prominent feature in this aspect of prehistoric religion in the Upper Palaeolithic Age with its sculptured 'Venuses' and other emblems in the decorated caves. Subsequently, this life-symbol became the central feature in the cult of the Great Mother in the Ancient Near East, the Aegean, Crete and Western Asia, and when the king was identified with the sky as the source of transcendental vitality and beneficence, the queen was equated with the earth as the immanent principle essential to the bestowal of providential bounty. Therefore, as he was reborn as the gods he embodied by his consecration, so his consort became the mother-goddess in one or other of her several capacities as the creatrix, having been the dominant figure in the earlier cult.
As the Great Mother became more clearly defined, and consciousness of the duality of male and female in procreation was recognized increasingly, from being the Unmarried Mother personifying the divine principle in maternity she became associated with the young god as her son and consort. Then, while she remained the crucial figure, the goddess cult assumed a twofold aspect in the ancient seasonal drama in which both the partners in generation played their respective roles of creative energy, the one female and receptive, the other male and active. From Neolithic times onward phallic emblems were increasingly prevalent, though maternal imagery was predominant in Western Asia and the eastern Mediterranean, where in the first instance the male god was subordinate to the goddess





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. Definition of Religion. Etymologically, religion is derived from the Latin word ‘re,ligare, which means ‘to tie, to bind. This can be interpreted as that which binds human beings to each other and as a force or power to uphold and integrate. It is also an indication that through religion we are bound to God, that religion is the way which endeavors to lead us back to the world soul from Whom they are led astray. It generally indicates faith or belief concerning the supernatural, sacred or divine. Prof Gustav Mensching in ‘Structures and patterns of Religion’ defines religion as “Religion is experiential encounter with the sacred and the responsive action of man affected by the sacred.” (pg.5.MDS1976) This definition distinguishes the two basics of all religion. ‘Encounter with the sacred’, is acquaintance or coming into contact with the revered. This experience can happen through religious insights, through a vision as occurred to Moses in Mount Sinai, in an experience of faith which Swami Vivekananda witnessed, in the hearing of the word, to which Sree Chaitanya answered, when he left home, in inner enlightenment, like Gautama Buddha. . The objects through which this communiqué with the revered takes place can be anything though the most common is “Nature, with its variegated abundance of forms and its deeply mysterious ways…besides events in ones personal life, words and deeds of great religious men can also be objects of religious divination”. (pg.6) The responsive action of man affected by the sacred, his reaction to the divine call can be expressed through his whole life, like the Sufi saint Kabir, or Mirabai, as well as through folklore, mythology and various forms of arts. Religion is there for man and can be best understood through human activity, through life. Religion is also associated with practices, values, and institutions related with such beliefs given to explain humankind’s relationship with the universe, his desire to explain the inexplicable. In agreement with his philosophical analysis, Kant defines religion as fulfillment of all our duties as divine commands. Religion for Kant is just the performance of our moral duties to the neglect of sentiments and emotions. In contrast to “Religion within the limits of Reason,” Schleiermacher defines religion as the contemplation of and feeling for the Universe. He never lost sight of the importance of feelings and treated the feeling-experience as fundamental to religion. “Religion”, says James, “shall mean for us the feelings , acts and experiences of the individual men in their solitude, so far as they apprehend themselves to stand in relation to whatever they may consider the divine”(Varieties of religious experience pp34-35). Max Muller termed religion “a mental faculty or disposition which enables man to apprehend the infinite. Prof. E.B.Taylor in ‘ Primitive Culture’ defines religion as “a belief in spiritual beings.” Prof Menzies, in History of Religion states that religion is the worship of spiritual beings from a sense of need. Religion can also be defined as Man’s faith in a power beyond himself whereby he seeks to satisfy emotional needs and gain stability of life, and which he expresses in acts of worship and service not only towards the divine but also towards the society. A good definition of religion is yet to emerge, as there is a staggering amount of data, phenomena of human experiences and expressions, that might be characterized in one culture or another, by one criterion or another as religion. So, there are different forms of religion. What this study seeks is whether there is any arrangement of thought that links all the various forms, the historical development of modern religion from the natural, examine the influence society and religion exerts on each other and subsequently, responsibility of religion as a harbinger of world peace. Yet, we can undertake
only a rapid sketch, but such as is necessary for the proper working of the general theme. We will first consider the general trait of religion, as outlined in the ‘Encyclopedia of Philosophy’, and ‘Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics’. All religion, from the ani mistic to the modern, (a) believe in something sacred, something supernatural. (b) Make a distinction between the sacred and the profane. (c) Consists of certain ritualistic acts, focused on the sacred object. This can include anything, from igniting the holy fire, sacrifice, physical austerities, or simply meditation. (d) As religion is by definition a binding and preserving force, it enjoins a moral code for all its followers, who believe it to be sanctioned by the gods. This code has a positive and a negative aspect. The positive function, it congregates all those who abide by the same idea of the Holy. Negatively, it segregates all other forms of belief. It will not be wrong if religion were termed an integrating and disintegrating force’. The truth of this is witnessed throughout the globe. Every religion carries with it a special feeling ‘the religious feeling’ (awe, sense of mystery, passion, despondency, total submission, guilt, adoration), awakened in the presence of the Sacred Object, or during the practice of rituals. The universal characteristic of religion is prayer. It is the simplest method of communication with the Divine. Prayer can be a personal affair, or it can be a public event as the ‘Diwali’, the ‘Durga Puja’, and ‘Christmas’, which has an important social influence. A very common and central subject of all religions is ‘Cosmology’. the first verse of the Christian Bible ("In the beginning, God created the heavens and the earth") indicates the only self-existent entity is God with all other things deriving from GodThe Babylonian creation myth is described in Enûma Elish. It existed in various versions and copies, the oldest dating to at least 1700 B.C.Ecosmogenies in Egyptian mythology, corresponding to at least three separate groups of worshippers. cosmogenies in Egyptian mythology, corresponding to at least three separate groups of worshippers.
· The Ennead, in which Atum arose from the primordial waters (Neith), and masterbated to relieve his lonelyness. His semen and breath became Tefnut (moisture) and Shu (dryness), respectively. From Shu and Tefnut, were born Geb (earth), and Nuit (sky), who were born in a state of permanent copulation. Shu separated them, and their children were Osiris (death), Set (desert), Isis (life), and Nepthys (fertile land). Osiris and Isis were a couple, as were Nepthys and Set.

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In the poem, the god Marduk arms himself and sets out to challenge the monster Tiamat. Marduk destroys Tiamat, cutting her into two halves which become the Earth and the sky. Later on, he also destroys Tiamat's husband, Kingu, and uses his blood to create mankindIncan account of creation is known based on what was recorded by priests, from the iconography on Incan pottery and architecture, and the myths and legends which survived amongst the native peoples. According to these accounts, in the most ancient of times the earth was covered in darkness. Then, out of a lake called Collasuyu (modern Titicaca), the god Con Tiqui Viracocha emerged, bringing some human beings with him. Then Con Tiqui created the sun (Inti), the moon and the stars to light the world. It is from Inti that the Sapa Inca, emperor of Tawantinsuyu, is descended. Out of great rocks Con Tiqui fashioned more human beings, including women who were already pregnant. Then he sent these people off into every comer of the world. He kept a male and female with him at Cuzco, the "navel of the world." In Islam all creation is attributed to Allah (the proper name for God in Arabic), the one and only God for Muslims. He is clearly identified as the "first cause" at numerous places in the Qur'an. Three instances follow:
(13:16) … Say: Allah is the Creator of all things, and He is the One, the Supreme
(57:3) … He is the First and the Last and the Manifest and the Hidden, and He is Knower of all things
(112:1) … Say: He, Allah, is One
(112:2) … Allah is He on Whom all depend

As religion revolves round a focal point, ‘ God’ creation and the place of the individual in it are explained with reference to ‘him’. The world is not uncaused “In the beginning rose Hiranyagarbha, born Only Lord of all created beings.
He fixed and holdeth up this earth and heaven
By him, the heavens are strong and earth is steadfast, by him, light ‘s realm and sky-vault are supported. The pre-creative state
described in the Nasadya Sukta, as ‘…neither being nor not being. The atmosphere was not, nor the sky above it…No sign
was there, the day’s and night’s divider…Darkness was thereat first, concealed in darkness this all was indiscriminate chaos.
All that existed then was void and formless….’(RV x.129.). To bring order and harmony to the chaotic mass was the task of
Viswakarma ‘the sole god producing heaven and earth’ Dhatar, the great creator who formed in due order Heaven and Earth
., the regions of the air and light. a similar undefined pre-creative state of the universe in Egyptian cosmology ‘not yet, was the heaven, not yet the earth, men were not, not yet born were the gods, not yet was death…’(Pyramid of Peppy 1., 1.663). In ancient Greece, this
initial formless state of the universe is ‘chaos In Hermopolis, a creation myth stated that the world began in a cosmic egg, laid
by the colossal gander, Sibu.The egg is a sacred symbol representing fecundity, In Nordic mythology Yimir,the cosmic world
giant, came into existence and the body of Yimir was used to make the world; "From the flesh of Yimir the world was formed,
From his bones were mountains made,
And Heaven from the skull of that frost cold giant,
From his blood the billows of the sea".(o.Bray,The Elder Edda,p.47 This picture contains some specifications of an over-all purpose or point of the world and an indication of how the individual fits into it. The Babylonian creation myth is described in Enûma Elish. It existed in various versions and copies, the oldest dating to at least 1700 B.C.E.
In the poem, the god Marduk arms himself and sets out to challenge the monster Tiamat. Marduk destroys Tiamat, cutting her into two halves which become the Earth and the sky. Later on, he also destroys Tiamat's husband, Kingu, and uses his blood to create mank ind
Religion is a means which relates or binds man with some power, higher or Supreme, which we call God.Religion, establishes the union between man and God. The whole nature of man is involved in such a union-through cognition,emotion and volition. The nature of such a union is spiritual because the supreme is pure consciousness the ‘sat-chit-ananda’.
Any body of thought ,belief or activity ,to be termed religious must have (a)belief in something sacred.
(b) a distinction between divine and profane.
© Ritual acts focused on the sacred objects.
(d) a moral code believed to be sanctioned by the Gods.
(e) characteristically religious feelings (awe, sense of mystery, guilt, adoration, which tend to be roused in the presence of sacred objects and during the practice of the rituals.
(f) prayer and other forms of communication with the sacred
(g) a world view , or a general picture of the world as a whole
(h)a theory of creation
(i)a place of worship









A social group bound together by a common faith.
Almost all these traits are present with individual modifications in all religions, ancient or modern. To be declared a religion then there must be belief in a supernatural power regarded as sacred, ways and means to seek its protection and benevolence, an accepted code regarding food marriage and other social activities, a common notion regarding death, soul and life thereafter. The difference between the various religions as we will have occasion to witness, is only in form not content. Why then do we not have a common religion and why did certain religions perish? How then do we distinguish between ancient and modern religions? To get a comprehensive view of ‘Religion’, I have divided the study in the following manner:
Religion of the ancient world -Animism
Tribal religion-Totemism
Ethnic Religion-Egypt, Babylonia, Mionia, Maya
Modern Religion- Buddhism, Christianity, Islam.
.
Religion of the ancient world
The primeval man ,in presence of the moving spectacle of nature, conceived to be the expression of living power, felt an awe in which fear, wonder, reverence were mingled. Early man lived in the unity of an undivided and unreflected life. He stood not against the natural world but lived in harmony with it. The manifold powers that animate the world also enlivened him. This was a stage when subject and object, as well as object and object were not exactly distinguished. Man essentially participated in everythingand in the depths of all things felt an essential identity which he expressed through his religion.
Animism is the oldest known religious attitude, with its origin likely dating to the Paleolithic age. Etymologically derived from anima meaning breath or soul, it was a system of thinking based on the belief that what is active is alive and that being alive is having the spirit that is the seat of life (activity). It is the reflection of the natural environment conditioned by man’s incessant struggle for self-preservation and every day struggle for existence. From the standpoint of both culture and religion, animism may be described as that root which sinks deepest in human experience and continues even today. No stage of culture, no great religion has been able to disown some of the commonest heirlooms left by this primitive mode of thinking. Animism explains all the phenomena of nature by attributing them to a spiritual agency. The concepts that humans have souls and those souls have life apart from human bodies before and after death are central to animism It is that stage of human history when, any object, rock, river, plant, was believed as possessing emotional, volitional and act ional potency like man himself. For anything to be alive is to have the same sort of life force, which man believes he possess.. In the animistic worldview, the human being is a member of the natural community and share the realm with others including plants animals, minerals, and natural phenomena. It is significant that the objects of worship did not cross the limits of mundane life. They were mainly those which aroused his curiosity or generated the emotion of fear .As Professor Hopkins observed that it may seem that the ancients worshipped a bewildering jumble, yet he never worshipped anything “…save what he imagined behind these phenomena…. power”(Hopkins Origin and Evolution of Religion P13). In the Germanic tribe, a big oak tree was supposed to have super-human power. In ancient China, human beings were considered as child born between heaven and earth, where heaven was the father and earth mother. In the South Pacific, primitive communities, as well as in India the earth is believed to have a soul and is revered as the ‘mother’ from which everything springs. “On whom are the ocean and the river, the waters; on whom food plo
wings came into being; on whom quickens this that breathes, that stirs….On whom the people of old formerly spread themselves ;on whom the gods overcame the Asuras; the station of kine, of horses, of birds-let the earth assign us fortune, splendor”(Atharva Veda 12.3,5).The Mother Goddess the symbol of the earth’s fertility and creative force of nature was worshipped under many names; Astarte (Syria)Ceres (Rome), Cybele (Phrygian), Demeter (Greece), Ishtar (Babylon) and Isis (Egypt)..
. The worship of animals was simultaneous with those of natural objects and the two existed side by side. The animist attributed to animals the same sorts of ideas, the same soul, the same mental processes as himself, which may] also be associated with greater power, cunning, or magical abilities.It is partly based on the fact that animals possess qualities that humans lack or have in lesser measures, such as strength or speed, and which inspire fear. Another factor is the mysteries that surround certain animals and this also gives cause for worship.An example is the snake. It is feared, yet in many cultures it is held sacred; it has healing properties or is associated with healing (it is the symbol of the healer god) and it is a symbol of immortality (the shedding and renewing of the skin). Important snakes in mythology are the Egyptian z, the world-serpent Jormungand, Ananta of the Hindus, and of course the great Quetzalcoatl of the Aztec.The Hebrews worshiped serpents down to the days of King Hezekiah, and the Hindus still maintain friendly relations with their house snakes. The Chinese worship of the dragon is a survival of the snake cults. The wisdom of the serpent was a symbol of Greek medicine and is still employed as an emblem by modern physicians. In Hindu religion and mythology, the snake is one of the most significant and frequently recurring symbols. Strangely, it is the symbol of both birth and death, reconciling these contradictions within itself. Snake worship precedes idol worship, and while practices have evolved to focus more on deities conceived as superhuman, snake worship is still prevalent in all parts of India
. The Indus Valley civilization of 3000 B.C. gives evidence of the popularity of snake-worship. In modern India, serpent worship is performed in all parts of the country. Battis Shirala is a tiny, obscure village in the south of Maharashtra. It is said that this area has a greater snake population than anywhere else in the world. The festivities are at their most colourful in this village. In Kerala, snake temples are crowded on this day and worship is offered to stone or metal icons of the cosmic serpent Ananta or Sesha. Puja rooms in many Kerala homes have silver or copper cobra that is worshipped and offered milk. In West Bengal and parts of Assam and Orissa, the snake deity worshipped on Naga Panchami is the Goddess Manasa. The cow is referred to as Gomata. She represents the Earth, the nourisher, ever-giving, undemanding provider. In the Indian tradition, the cow is honored, garlanded and given special feedings at festivals, most importantly the annual Gopashtama festival. The Rig Veda says “May the wind blow upon our cows with healing; may they eat herbage full of vigorous juices. May they drink water rich in life and fatness: (10.159.1) Animals are frequently regarded as the abode, temporary or permanent, of the souls of the dead. Respect for them is due to two main reasons: (a) the kinsmen of the dead desire to preserve the goodwill of their dead relatives: (b) they wish at the same time to secure that their kinsmen are not molested and caused to undergo unnecessary suffering. The geographical character of a place largely determines the worship of animals. Thus, the bear enjoys a large measure of respect East Asia among the Siberian tribes. The bear is traditionally associated with Bern in Switzerland, and in 1832 a statue of Artio, a bear goddess, was dug up there to connect the Greek goddess Artemis with a cult of the bear; girls danced as "bears" in her honor, and might not marry before undergoing this ceremony.
Another animal worshipped and protected is the elephant and more so the white elephant. Just before the birth of the Buddha Mayavati dreamt of a white elephant and throughout South east Asia, India, Ceylon it is believed that a white elephant may contain the soul of a dead person, perhaps a Buddha. If one is captured animal cannot be bought or sold.. In some parts of Indo-China, the belief is that the soul of the elephant may injure people after death; a whole village therefore fetes it. In Cambodia, it is held to bring luck. Religion is an expression of the social and economical circumstances in which man finds himself and is largely shaped by the drive to survive. Acknowledging the benefits received from animals and admitting their natural instincts, animals were regarded as sacred. Their power, their cunning, their keen sense of smell, their ability to see in the dark, were regarded as symbolic of supernatural guidance. They also honored the animal's superior strength, speed, and fertility, and the animal became recognized as symbolizing these powers. These people always held the animal sacred because it shared a vital part of their lives, and they recognized their dependency upon the animal. It is not surprising to find that many people respect and even worship animals, often regarding them as ancestors of there clan.or protector of their community. The Egyptians believed that specific species were adored by each god or goddess, and by honoring that animal, they would please the god. Animals were believed to be the incarnation of the god or goddess. Upon the animal's death, a young replacement was found to represent the god or goddess. Dead animals are sometimes credited with a knowledge of how their remains are treated, potentially with the power to take vengeance on the hunter if he is disrespectful The human race was not considered superior to the animal world. Both had been created by the gods to share the earth as partners.
.. Among other objects of worship were creatures that were regarded as half human and half animal, such as centaurs and mermaids.

The Cosmic Law

PRELIMINARY
‘Nature’ is one of those words in English vocabulary that has the most multifarious and often overlapping renderings. Nature can be material as Aristotle defines it as the primary matter, shapeless and unchangeable from its own potency, of which any natural object consists or from which it is produced. He further explained that the primary and proper meaning of Nature is the essence of things, which have in themselves (qua themselves) a principle of motion. 1 (Aristotle’s Metaphysics, pg 8.ed trans John Warrington. Everyman’s Library. Dent: London. 1966).
Nature is a totality of ‘things that are and that are not’, observed John Scotus Eriugena the Irish philosopher. Things that are perceived by the senses or are penetrable by the intellect are the things that are, while objects that transcend the power of the intellect are things that are not. This fails to define Nature exhaustively, because Nature is not only the natural world but also spiritual. So Eriugena clarified that Nature, which creates and is not created is God himself who is the cause of all things but is Himself without cause.2 Interestingly this observation associates Eriugena’s ‘Nature ‘with the ‘Purusa’ of Samkhya. Examining the varied manifestations of ‘Nature’ Heraclitus remarked, ‘Nature loves to hide itself.’3 (HERACLITUS The Complete Fragments. Translation and Commentary and The Greek text. William Harris, Prof. Emeritus Middlebury College).
Indeed the mysteries of Nature added to it a sublimity urging philosophers like Spinoza to look at ‘Nature and ‘God’ as interchangeable terms. God or Nature is a free and originating cause, and the only free, because the only self-creating cause (Natura Naturans). Nature/God is conceived as manifesting itself both as unique creator and the unique creation (Natura Naturata) in the same way as Supreme Soul Purushottama and the Supreme Nature Para Prakriti are identified in Indian philosophy. “Know this to be the womb of all beings; I am the birth of the whole world and so too its dissolution.”4 (The Gita 7. VI)
It is generally believed that man became religious long before he became a philosopher, where religion is a state of mind evoked by awe, wonder, humbleness, dependence and acceptance towards a force whose existence one can always experience but cannot explain then Nature is the first object of worship. This is marked in ‘Animism’, (anima meaning breath or soul) the oldest known religion dating back to the Palaeolithic age, which believes that everything existing in Nature possess a soul. Significant to our study is the animistic worldview where humans are considered a denizen of Nature rather than superior to or separate from it. There was no man-nature divide. Animism is basically Nature worship, the objects of worship being local trees, stones, springs etc.
As man progressed from hunter-gatherer to food –grower, he allocated souls to crops and interestingly agricultural people all over the world developed elaborate ceremonies to worship the corn deity. (Onam, Nabanna, Bihu), In India she is ‘Lakshmi’ the corn mother, goddess of abundance, in classical Europe Ceres and Demeter.
To sow your seed
Go naked; strip to plough and strip to reap,
If you would harvest all Demeter's yield
In season. Thus each crop will come in turn,
And later, you will not be found in need,
And forced to beg from other men, and get
No help. (Hesiod, Works and Days (trans. Dorothea Wender)
With the advent of universal religions like Christianity, Islam, Buddhism these Nature Gods lost their importance in almost all countries (especially Western), but India has been able to sustain the effects of such change.
A summary remark of the above views is- God and Nature is identical.
The Romantics might not have directly contributed to the above view but they established an oneness with Nature and looked upon Nature not as something external but an extension of their own persona. Thus Coleridge made had this genuine feeling… “In looking at objects of Nature while I am thinking as at yonder moon, dim, glimmering through the windowpane, I seem rather to be seeking for something within me that already and forever exists, than observing anything new.(Coleridge Appreciations pg 73 as in Nature , Walter Pater )
The advancement of science has changed our orientation towards Nature and it pointed not so much towards the Divine as towards ascertainable laws of the universe.19th century philosopher J.S.Mill gives very basic definitions of Nature- (i) it either denotes the entire system of things with their aggregate of all their properties or (ii) it denotes things as they would be apart from human intervention.5 (On Nature; Ethics ed Peter Singer, OUP, 1994 pg 273). Hence Nature can represent, following definition (i) a whole workhouse of activity, actions, reactions and relations a continuous process of making and becoming, or (ii) refer to the general realm of various types of living plants and animals, and in some cases to the processes associated with inanimate objects – the way that particular types of things exist and change of their own accord, such as the weather and geology of the Earth, and the matter and energy of which all these things are composed. It is often taken to mean the "natural environment" or wilderness – wild animals, rocks, forest, beaches, and in general those things that have not been substantially altered by human intervention. (Information from Wikipedia,). Nothing however suggests ‘sacred Nature’. The general argument is that given the knowledge we have of the natural world and the technique to intrude and interfere in with the course of natural events it is no longer possible to look upon Nature as sacred. Sacredness imposes certain restrictions; this is entailed in the very definition of ‘sacred’. So if we regard Nature as sacred we should treat it as having intrinsic worth exempt from ‘swapping’ of every kind. Keeping this in the backdrop, we enter the central theme of this chapter, - the Indian view of Nature, with a brief historical examination of the different philosophical schools. An assessment from such a study will, we hope lay the foundation of a value-based ethics of the environment.
The Indian Concept of Nature
I am come neigh to thee with balms, to give thee rest and keep thee safe.
I bring thee blessed strength; I drive thy weakening malady away (R.V. 10. 137.4)
The Indian attitude towards Nature is reverential will be evident as we proceed with our discussion. As an introductory I like to mention that appreciating Nature from the Indian aspect requires respect for the primal energy of life, always young and potent. It focuses on a relationship with the vital force from which everything issues and into which they return. “As from the blazing fire in thousand ways similar sparks proceed, so are produced living souls of various kinds from the indestructible and they also return to Him”(Taittareya Upanishad 2.1.1)
The most important characteristic of Indian philosophy is the manifestation of the Divine through Nature. “This world with all its changing appearances is but the manifestation of the supreme soul. From him are produced life mind and all the organs, ether air, light, the water, (and) the earth, the support of all”. (Taitt 2.1.3.). The reaction, which existed in the Palaeolithic age found continuation in the Indus –Saraswati civilization. Seals discovered in the Indus Saraswati basin bear evidence to this fact. The seal showing a nude female figure, head downward and legs stretched upwards, with a plant issuing out of her womb," may be a proto-type of Aditi/Lajja Gauri the personification of all the reproductive energies. Thus we are Nature’s children and all our tradition s and religious paraphernalia are Nature-centric Thus we are born of “The Holy Pair, of wondrous power, …These Heaven and Earth … Widely –capacious Pair, mighty, that never fail, the Father and the Mother keep all creatures safe”(RV 1.160.1-2). From this it is clear that we have a filial bonding with Nature and are duty bound towards its protection and preservation We protect nature as we would protect our child and respect her as we would respect our parents.
Egbert Richter-Ush
To acquire the most comprehensive Indian viewpoint on Nature we will concentrate on the following
Rta the cosmic law
Sristi cosmology
Panchabhutas the five eternal elements
Ahimsa non-injury
Rta the cosmic law
Do we not sense an undetectable but well-established pattern governing our life? Childhood, youth, old age and finally death is a course set for everything, animate and inanimate; the river runs to the sea, day follows night and night day, the moon changes its phase at a regular and fixed interval causing the rise and fall of tides suggesting that all these events have been pre- planned and set to motion irreversibly. Does this not suggest that the whole frame of this Universe is pervaded by a subtle power that initiates, processes and oversees all the proceedings of this huge workshop? Scientists like Einstein was convinced that a spirit is manifest in the laws of the Universe - a spirit vastly superior to that of man, and one in the face of which we with our modest powers must feel humble. In this way the pursuit of science leads to a religious feeling of a special sort, which is indeed quite different from the religiosity of someone more naive. [c. Dukas and Hoffman] His [the scientist's] religious feeling takes the form of a rapturous amazement at the harmony of natural law, which reveals an intelligence of such superiority that, compared with it, all the systematic thinking and acting of human beings is an utterly insignificant reflection. [The World As I See It]. http://members.aol.com/heraklit1/einstein.htm
Appropriate to the harmony they observed in the external world and in the happenings within them (as part of the same world), the Rig Vedic philosophers accepted a law to which everything would be subject. This law in the form of a Universal Order they termed ‘Rta’. It is the personification of that power of regulation and conservation that some refer to as Nature and some God.
Indian philosophy has recognized in Nature the essence of all that move and move not Nature have its own set of rules in accordance with which it operates. These are pre-existing settled order by which earth is to look upon Heaven, plants that blossom and bear seed, streams are spread across the field and the matchless lightning flash in the sky. – This is the established Law, the Rta; the pre-existing settled order into which we are born. Its uniqueness lies not only in ordaining but inducing harmony into the natural system. What could have been cacophony, Rta like an expert ‘opera-conductor’ translates it into the music of the Universe.
Einstein believed that the laws of Nature determine everything- it determines for the insect as well as for the star. Human beings, vegetables or cosmic dust – we all dance to a mysterious tune, intoned in the distance by an invisible piper.
The focus of Natural law upheld by Rta is on the ‘entire’ universe and not on separate sections as it would disturb the balance and generate disharmony. It indicates a unity relentlessly striving for the preservation and continued maintenance and progressing towards perfection. That ‘One’ who in the unborn’s image hath stablished and fixed firm the world and its six regions is Rta (R.V. 1.164.6.)
Rta is sacred because it is eternal, Universal and unconditionally binding. Etymologically derived from the root ‘re ‘, it denotes fixed proper, right, fit, apt, suitable direction or course to be followed and truth.. (According to Bergaigne’s interpretation In ‘Vedic Religion’)
Rta functions as (a) the course of Nature or the regular or general order of the Universe; it is the wheel with twelve spokes (ratha-chakra) that eternally rotates around the Heavens. It does not wear out –in it rest the world of being. (R.V. 1 164.2).
(b). Rta is the norm or standard of all our actions. “To him who keeps the Law, both old and young, thou givest happiness and energy that he may live
(c) The social and ethical code of behaviour, restrain ing us from breaking the cords: ‘with this petition we strive to gain the powers of our forefathers.’(R.V. 1.89.3.) What would otherwise be mere external causal events, unconnected with unaffected by human thought and action has through this all-encompassing Rta made everything connected and involved. This has laid the foundation of a value attitude towards oneself and others.
. The events of the natural world are sequential, which again indicates the existence of a law or frame. So, ‘when the fair the Bright is come with her white offspring (dawn) to her the Dark one hath resigned her dwelling. Night sent away for Savitar’s uprising hath yielded up a birthplace for the Morning”. (R.V. 1.113.2,) This imparts the important message that Nature has place for every shade and every form, to suppress or interfere with it is to destabilize her. The relatedness between man and Nature, which is the essence of Indian environmental philosophy, is explicable through this Law of natural harmony Personified as the ‘Eternal Herdsman’, who never stumbles, approaching by his pathways and departing. He clothed with gathered and diffusive splendour within the worlds continuously travels. (R.V. 1.164.31). The interrelatedness and interdependence, a precondition to deal with this present crisis is in Nature and we have to realize it. This cosmic law speaks of a ‘whole’, of a unity and ‘Rta’ is indicative of this universal concord.
This is the Divine law, but ‘divinity’ does not indicate origin in a God, designated by a substantive even less by a proper noun .It is divine not because it was handed down, as the Ten Commandments’ were by God to Moses on Mount Sinai, but because it belongs to the nature of things. ‘Rta’, expresses the essence of man and of the other members of Nature, and the way they fit together. It is divine because it expresses the profound structures of a permanent natural order.
This Law, to which we are referring can bring up the question that we are simply cogs in a huge wheel moving because we are so arranged? An answer could be, “Whatever law of thine O God, Varuna, as we are men,
Day after day we violate.
Give us not as a prey to death, to be destroyed by thee in wrath,
To thy fierce anger when displeased.” (R.V. 1. 25.1-2). This passage is a suggestion to the contrary. If ‘Rta’ would be so compelling the option of violating it would not, I believe arise.
About this Law of Nature the Egyptians were aware; they observed regularity in the movements of natural objects. Every evening the lunar bark (moon) emerged out of Hades by the same door through which ‘Ra’ (sun) had passed through in the morning and as it rose in the horizon, the star lamp dotted over the firmament appeared one by one giving light here and there like a camp-fire in a distant army. . Each month, they noticed, there was a fortnight of youth and growing splendour followed by a fortnight of agony and ever-increasing pallor. The moon was born to die and died to be born again, twelve times in a year (ref, Dawn of Civilization: Egypt and Chaldaaea, Maspero.G London: SPCK 1892 pg 93-94). This universal order was in command of ‘Maat’ goddess of Truth, Balance, and Order. Owing to this connectedness among events in the natural world it was possible they argued, to predict the yearly inundation of the Nile.
The Greeks attributed Themis as mankind’s instructor of the divine law and order along with the traditional rules of conduct. She was the voice (themistes) who first inculcated the primal laws of justice and morality, such as the precepts of piety, the rules of hospitality, good governance, conduct of assembly, and pious offerings to the gods. . Unlike the word nomos, the term was not usually used to describe laws of human decree. Themis is the personification of the order of things established by law, custom, and equity.( Quintus Smyrnaeus. The Fall of Troy. Translated by Way. A. S. Loeb Classical Library Volume 19. 298 ff London: William Heinemann, 1913) consequently that he who does not justly perform his appointed duty may appear as a violator of the whole order of the universe. (Conford, F.M.From Religion to Philosophy, Harper Brothers, New York, 1957,pg12.)
Having noticed that the invisible and the visible worlds are subject to a Law or Order, in accordance with which the black earth bears wheat and barley, and the trees are laden with fruits, and the sheep bring forth and fail not, and the sea gives store of fish, the Prophet Zorathushtra applied to this Order the name ‘Asha Vahishta’, the Best Order, or the Highest Righteousness This order is the essence of the Divine Ahura Mazda, the all-good Beneficent Immortal equivalent to Eternal and all out of his good guidance, the people prosper.. ‘Asha’ is that arrangement in consonance with which the Natural scenario has been fashioned. (The Religion of the Good Life; Zoroastrianism, pg 66 Rustom Merancularasani, London). Referring to ‘ the Religion of the Chinese’, (Jan Jacob Maria de Grout) Rta is the ‘Tao’ the order and the way of the Cosmos Heaven and Earth began from this ‘Tao’ who It regulates the diurnal and annual ‘revolutions of the heavens’, and the two powers of light and darkness, summer and winter, heat and cold, birth and death, male and female, in and out. “It represents all that is correct, normal or right (ching or twan) in the universe; it does indeed never deviate from its course. It consequently includes all correct and righteous dealings of men and spirits, which alone promote universal happiness and life. (Jan Jacob Maria de Grout, The Religion of the Chinese. Macmillan, N.York.1910.pg, 174). When all things obey the laws of the Tao, they will form a harmonious whole and the universe will become an integrated organism Humans follow the Tao, by behaving ‘naturally’, the way they are intended to behave according to the law.
The ancient Mesopotamians believed in a universal law like other civilizations of that period. Goddess Ishtare, who is the light of the world …the light of heaven, who is supreme in might, exalted above all Gods. “Upon her are subject the laws of the earth and the laws of heaven,
The laws of the temple and the shrines,
The laws of the private apartments and the secret chambers
Where is the place where thy name is not?
Where is the spot where thy commandments are not known? (Ancient Mesopotamia; Literature Krishna Chaitanya, Orient Longman1964, 1995 pg.23)
Careful estimates of all the opinions lead s one to conclude that pre -Christian thinking acknowledged the presence of a law or order that was simultaneously physical and moral. This law immanent in the universe is the foundation of Indian philosophy encompassing the vast deep earth and the heavens and upholding it. No one is exempt from it. He too who fixes this law upholds it. (R.V. 4.32 10). It has given us the integrating power which is manifested in ‘Vasubhadika Kutumbakam’ the whole world is a family. Here whole is to be understood as all-inclusive, from the lowest to the highest order of Nature. This is the essence of the Indian attitude towards Nature.
This concept of Rta is intimately linked to the Indian ethics of the environment, where ethics includes besides, dos and don’ts, the question of preservation and continuation .In the earlier part of this discussion Rta has been referred to as the wheel, which initiates motion. From the environmental aspect it allows adaptation (with reference to evolutionary changes) and flexibility (to accommodate these changes), whereas from the societal aspect it is tolerance. By virtue of this our civilization has continued since 5000years, whereas contemporaries in Egypt, Babylonia, Greece, have succumbed to external forces.
Tolerance is acceptance that leads to harmony intolerance is discord. The environmental crisis, which threatens us today, is the result of intolerance. I have indicated earlier that with our increasing scientific knowledge and resulting egocentricism we dare to over step the directive laid down by ‘Dhatar’ the ‘Law Maker’ who formed in due order Heaven and Earth, the regions of Night, the air, and light.(R.V. 10)
The emphasis on the cosmic Law when environmental crisis is the issue is to impart the message that in the Indian way of thinking there is no dividing line between natural and supernatural, there is no area of life that is beyond ‘Rta’. Thus in its basic conceptual structure there is no place for any dichotomy between the moral and the natural; on the contrary the focus is on internal peace that manifests as external harmony. This is also an indication of the basic monotheism of Indian philosophy. “They call him Indra, Mitra, Varuna, Agni, and ha is heavenly nobly-winged Garutman. ‘To what is one, sages give many a title: they call it Agni, Yama, Matarisvan.”(R.V.1. 164.46). This harmony is embedded in the entire Universe as Rta- the wheel formed with twelve spokes, unweakened by the length of time rolling round the Heaven this ‘chakra’of during Order. Herein established, joined in pairs together, seven hundred sons and twenty*, working as a unit as a whole to maintain the stability of this universe. *(720 minutes =12 hours). The wheel is a symbol of relatedness between the parts , perfect agreement and balance within the entire structure which make possible the uninterrupted cycle of natural events. The emphasis is on integration on relatedness, as disintegration leads to decay which we are experiencing in the present. “Just as the nature of the earth is one, while beings each live separately, And the earth has no thought of oneness or difference: So is the Cosmic which connects us with the root, establishing the kinship between everything because we are born from the same seed. I am the seed of all existence. There is no being moving or still that that exists without me. (B.G). This is the quintessential of Indian aspect of Nature. All forms of life, from the universe itself down to the individual trees and seed and the very earth beneath our feet, is full of this Divine purpose of Nature. (Ranchor Prime calls this God, Artist, Creator, in ‘Hinduism and Ecology. Seeds of Truth.MBD.Delhi 1994, pg 4)
To sum up the forgoing discussion
· Rta-essence is harmony; designates ‘order, pattern observable in the natural world.
· Rta is moral law, the laws of nature. Gods abide by it. It represents dynamic, undecaying Nature.
· It is conservation. Rta is svata and dharma because it is unfaltering.
· It is Foundation of all relationships. Opposing Rta leads to discord. Rta maintains balance of the world.

Underlying this cosmic law is the One Universal Mind, suggesting a bond of friendship with the mortal. “How, and what love hath he for those who love him, who have entwined in him their firm affection? (R.V. 4. 23. 5 “we all dance to a mysterious tune intoned in the distance by an invisible piper”, remarked Einstein. This law is the urge to move onwards, through right relationship and concord. So is ‘Rta’ environmental scenario. Alternatively, the ‘whole’ from which, as we will discuss later, everything has been caused, allow no division in any of its experiences. Yet we cannot resist asking, “What was the tree, what wood in sooth produced it, from which they fashioned out the earth and heaven? (R.V. 10. 81. 4).

NON=ATTACHMENT

‘NON-ATTACHMENT’-

AN ANSWER TO THE PRESENT SOCIALCRISIS.

“He who binds to himself a joy
Does the winged life destroy;
But he who kisses the joy as it flies
Lives in Eternity's sunrise.” William Blake


‘Non-attachment’ as an attitude towards life is generally associated with the Indian way of thinking. In the Bhagavad Gita (B.G.) Lord Krishna said Acts of sacrifice, gift and penance are not to be relinquished but should be performed giving up attachments and desire for fruits. “This O Partha is my decided and final view”.( B.G.18.6)
The objective of this paper is to find through ‘non-attachment’, a solution to the present social crisis .of desperation and depression. The modern world scenario is one of continuous advancement in science and technology. Human ingenuity has crossed the limits of the planet and traveled into space. It is able to create new life through cloning; reduce, control and prevent life threatening diseases, expand longevity significantly; yet the social parameters imposed by ecological damage, over-population ,nuclear and bio- chemical disaster, enhances the dichotomy between abundance and apocalypse. This is due to our unwarranted desire. The global society is a perfect picture of consumerism. Our needs are fuelled everyday by endless resources and we engage into ceaseless activity to attain them. It is of no little consequence that with the idea of the end of action or result is attached the feeling of pleasure. In essence it is the ‘object- pleasure’ association which motivates us to act, not the end itself. Consequently there arises a desire for more pleasure in accordance with the ‘paradox of hedonism’, and we are swept into a whirlpool of action which encloses on all sides and finally drowns us into despair. Yet, we cannot but be active! We are all part of the vibratory cosmic activity and no one can remain even for a moment without doing work; everyone is made to act helplessly by the impulses born of Nature. Work or activity (Karma) is Nature’s foundation, and goes on always. It is rooted in the Imperishable. “If I should cease to work these worlds would fall to ruin and I should be the creator of disordered life and destroy these people (B.G.3.24). Besides, the dynamism of the living world is its ability to work or act. So we cannot give up activity. Neither can we give up desire because, “With a desire to create he who is beyond measures, creates the great creation” (Brahmanda Purana 1.1.3 16) (Bd.P.). “na karmanam anarambhan
naishkarmyam purusho ’snute
na ca sannyasanad eva
siddhim samadhigacchati. (B.G.3.4) Not by merely abstaining from work can one achieve freedom from reaction, nor by renunciation alone can one attain perfection. but through activity alone. We habitually admit that activity/Karma is happening to us as if we are subject to some external force that influences us either positively or negatively. Let us for once consider the contrary, that our own inner conditions are leading us to experience outer effects or consequences in relation to our own actions. Further, these actions come from deep impressions or habits … “everything we do, physical or mental is karma, and it leaves its marks on us”‘1as ‘samaskars’. . “Every work that we do , every movement of the body, every thought that we think, leave such an impression on the mind stuff …what we are every moment is determined by the sum total of all the impressions of my past life”2) If this be the case then, “All the actions that we see in the world, all the movements in human society, all the works that we have around us are simply the display of thought, the manifestation of the will of man” So “ we are responsible for what we are; and whatever we wish ourselves to be we have the power to make ourselves”3 On the basis of this it ensues that if whatever we are now has been the result of our own past actions, it certainly follows that whatever we wish to be in future can be produced by our own actions. Not any action, as disorganized activity only fritters our energy.
So we must learn how to work and this is the aim of the ‘Karma Yoga’ which Swamiji defined as “the knowledge of the secret of work”.4 Work is always initiated by a motive. There cannot be work without motive. Some people want to get fame and they work for fame. Others want money and they work for money. Others want to have power and they work for power. Prominence, dominance, affluence and the idea of consequent pleasures that they conjure, are the various motives which generally motivate us to act (do karma). Recalling the episode of the Mahabharata when Arjuna could see nothing but the bird’s eye the object of his aim, we likewise narrow down our vision to that particular end which is our motive. We can see nothing beyond it, not even its effects on others. This is a crisis which is equally affecting the individual and the society. “The majority of us cannot see beyond a few years, just as some animals cannot see beyond a few steps. Just a little narrow circle –that is our world. We have not the patience to look beyond, and thus become immoral and wicked. This is our weakness, our powerlessness.”5 (pg 33). We amass all our physical and psychological vigor to realize the immediate end ignorant of the fact the end is just another beginning. This is the cycle to which we are bound by the fruits of our own Karma because we only project the ‘I’ and not the ‘Thou’. ‘Pravvritti’, said Swamiji, is revolving towards the ‘I’ and ‘mine’; it includes all those things which are always enriching that “me” by wealth and money and power and name and fame and which are of a grasping nature always tending to accumulate everything in one centre, that centre being “myself”.6 (pg 85-86) This accumulation is the cause of sorrow, because it knows no end. Gautama Buddha explained it through the twelve spokes of the ‘bhava-chakra’ from avidya samaskaras, vijnana,namarupa, ,sadayatana,sparsha, vedana, trsna, upadana, bhava, jati and jara-marana.The root cause is ignorance which precludes us from grasping the impermanent nature of world of objects. ‘Whatever is born in time or has a beginning will ultimately breakdown’, because everything is by its nature momentary. It is our false knowledge which gives us the impression that they are permanent. This gives rise to desire and from desire attachment follows. Every living being comes forth from desire and endures as a combination of desires.. Then, when we emerge into this world, we become infatuated with many things, and become ourselves well-springs of desire. Through desire we give rise to attachments. For every desire there is a corresponding attachment, namely, to the object of desire. But if we consider this attachment, we will see that it is a potential source of suffering. Our body is constantly changing and old age, disease and the fear of death overwhelms us. The lust for life and fear of death are forms of attachment as are the motive for name and fame which come to us when we are old and almost done with life. To work without selfish motive endows upon the individual the capacity to become a powerful moral giant. The modern civilized world evades the truth and wish to hold on forever what is in truth ‘only for a moment’. Our incessant cravings make us cling to them and we are ready to go to any limits to cling on to them. This is the cause of our sorrow. We forget that “to work we have the right but not to the fruits thereof”7 (pg 33). An interesting reference to ‘non-attachment’ was made by Aldous Huxley “…the practice of non attachment entails the practice of all virtues …the ideal non-attached man is ‘non-attached’ to his to his bodily sensations and lusts, to his cravings for power and possessions , to the object of these various desires, to his anger and hatred , to his exclusive loves, to wealth ,fame , social position, to , philanthropy science ,art, speculation. the non-attached man puts an end to pain , not only in himself but also from refraining from malicious and stupid activity , to such pain that he may inflict on others’8(A Literary Study, John Atkins, London, John Calder.1956 pg 149) The exercise of ‘non-attachment’ could be the only solution for the crisis of our times. We indulge in a life of pleasure which creates an internal void and despondency generating more desire and consequent attachment. “The attitude of non-attachment is a choice .no man can be compelled into it…”9 (ibid pg 150) To internalize it so that non-attachment becomes a habit we have to ‘know’. Ignorance is the mother of all evil and misery we see and suffer. It is our doing and we have to eradicate it. Life is of very little value if it is groping in the dark avenues of indecision arising from ignorance. Ignorance is the mother of all evil and all the suffering we are experiencing, from waging a constant battle with ourselves. We are all slaves, working under the prescription of endless yearnings.. Freedom will only come with spiritually strong and an educated man because such individuals cannot be acted upon by anything outside; there is no more slavery for him. Non-attachment is not withdrawal from the world but it is incessant working but as a stranger in this land without any acquirement. We should walk but leave no footprints behind as The Tao Te Ching an ancient Taoist explained that in his journey through life the sage leaves no traces of desire and attachment clinging to him as he lives from moment to moment. Life is following, always changing, and the sage never looks back to the moment which has sped by, nor does he look forward to the moment which lies ahead. Rather, he lives in the present, flowing along in harmony with the rhythm of life, appreciating each moment for what it is worth and allowing it to pass on quickly to be replaced by the next. The key to happiness is non-attachment, and the secret of non-attachment right understanding
. Swallows fly in the sky,
The water reflects their images.
The swallows leave no traces,
Nor does the water retain their images. This is the only solution for the depraved society.

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Prakrti and the Sanctity of Life


The Hindu has no authority over creatures of the earth. God (Brahman) is the efficient cause and nature, Prakrti, is the material cause of the universe. However, this division is non-dualistic in nature. They are one in the same, or perhaps better stated, they are the one in the many and the many in the one.

Despite western assertion that Hinduism is polytheistic in nature, this sort of polytheism is actually monotheistic in nature. While the Divine is manifest in many, the many are all and no less than, but not equal to the Divine.

While Hindus are not given the sort of authority over nature and creation that Judeo-Christian God grants, they are subject to a higher and more authoritative resposiblity for creation. The most important aspect of this is the doctrine of ahimsa, non-violence. Faith in this doctrine is comprehensive, Yajnavalkya Smirti warns, "the wicked person who kills animals which are protected has to live in hell fire for the days equal to the number of hairs on the body of that animal."

This doctrine's most important aspect pertains to the belief that the Supreme Being incarnates in to forms of various species.

The Hindu belief in samsara, the cycle of life, death, and rebirth encompasses reincarnation into forms other than human. It is believed that one lives 84,000 lifetimes before one becomes a man. Each species is in this process of samsara until one attains moksha, liberation. The Hindu religious goal of moksha is not salvation, and does not require forgiveness, but detachment from the material world. Though one might argue that such a goal in essence rejects the natural world as having value, the Hindu goal is to liberate one from the self, from the illusion of the material world as being separate and individual.

A second doctrinal Hindu source for treatment of all life and nature is found in the Rig Veda. The Rig Veda regarded trees and plants as possessing divine healing properties, and it is still popularly believed that every tree has a Vriksa-devata, a tree deity. They are ritually worshiped with prayer, offerings, and the sacred thread ceremony. The Vriksa-devata are not worshiped as gods, but as manifestations of the Divine. Tree planting is considered a religious duty.

Modern Hindu Ecological Movements:

The Chipko Movement- in March of 1973 in Gopeshwar, India, villagers formed a human chain and hugged trees marked to be cut down for the development of a sports equipment factory. Since then, the Chipko Andolan (movement to hug trees) as grown as a Hindu ecological movement.







































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SKYBIRD HAS SPREAD ITS WINGS AND WANTS TO SOAR HIGH ABOVE ALL THE SMALL MISFORTUNES OF LIFE



FAR FROM THE MADDING CROWD.

As the Darjeeling Mail lugged out from Sealdah station I realised that finally I had yielded to the irresistible call of the wild. My destination this Puja holiday was the Gorumara forest in the Dooars of North Bengal. ‘Lataguri’ my first stop in this episode was about four hours drive from New Jalpaiguri station through tea gardens, little rivulets and scattered tribal settlements. I put up at ‘Nakshatra Resort’ far from the madding tourist crowd. After a refreshing bath and delicious meal I ventured out to explore Nature’s empire. Very cautiously I trespassed into the quite, sun n shade filigreed domain, closely guarded by the tall, straight, thick leaved deciduous sentinels. Not a soul stirred nor a footfall heard; the only sound audible was the crackle of the dried leaves under my boots and a creek of forest beetle. I had never experienced such stillness! Accustomed to blasting air horns, blaring microphones and the constant ring of the cell-phone, the atmosphere was both eerie and exciting. The smell of the wet earth, the fragrance of unknown flowers, and a sudden wisp of coolness daubed a balm to my tired mind and sore eyes. It never occurred to me that the forest had such mesmerizing effect and like a hypnotized person I penetrated further and further into the bosom of the greenery. The ding –dong of a cow bell broke my reverie and I hurried back to the resort where the much needed tea was waiting for me. While on a jeep safari to the Medhla watch tower in the heart of the Gorumara forest, I met an elephant family; my first encounter with the wild in the wild was the scariest in the whole itinerary. It was also my first night out in the jungle, enveloped in an unknown shade of darkness, bejewelled by fireflies! Such peace such tranquillity yet so awe inspiring! The ‘Murti’ river which hems the forest is like a village belle gurgling down to meet the Teesta. Through its crystal clear water you can see the colourful pebbles in the river bed, a contrast to the polluted Ganga in Kolkata. Kingfishers swoop down in search of fish while peacocks grandly display their plumage on the banks vanity oozing out in every gait. Against the backdrop of the setting sun it was ethereal. From Lataguri I went up to ‘Tinchulay’ land of three peaks, resembling a ‘chula’ or stove, 5800 ft above sea level. For urbanites Tinchulay is a refreshing change with coniferous greens assorted with orchids, lilies and honeysuckle. Pollution free, dew-kissed, Tinchulay is ideal for bird watchers and nature ramblers. Gurung Guest House the only accommodation available is family run village tourism, contributing to the upkeep of the pristine environment at the same time providing employment to the members of their clan. Food is local cuisine, fresh from the garden vegetables, ‘Nepali roti’ and the unique ‘tree tomato’. The place is a combination of lush green tea gardens, red moss, silvery streams and rough terrain. The most breath taking view is of the rising sun, which glides through layers of soft white clouds painting the whole mountain vermillion red. Gradually the snowy peak of the Kanchenjunga turns orange, pink and golden yellow. If you want to experience this majestic phenomena walk up to the sunrise point, at 5.30 am. With the lingering fragrance of the night queen, and the traditional good-by from Ms Grung, I set out on the last lap of my journey –Darjeeling. The ‘Queen of the hills’ however has been robbed of its crown; it has been transformed into a commercial hub . It’s a tragedy that from the ‘Mall’ you can see everything except the hills! Hoteliers and Retail giants have stripped the maiden and plundered its greenery, its waterfalls, its mist and fog. Yet all is not lost. There are still the tall .slender cryptomerias (Dhupi) with their dark green branches, filling the atmosphere with an aroma which is unique to Darjeeling. The clouds still wander in groups, sometimes settling on the pine branches and sometimes floating to some unknown land. Birds still twitter in the evening sky, monkeys display their skill, but ‘Darjeeling’ is choking and we must join hands to give it space to breath. The Queen’s crown must be restored.






















SKYBIRD HAS SPREAD ITS WINGS AND WANTS TO SOAR HIGH ABOVE ALL THE SMALL MISFORTUNES OF LIFE

Hello friends,

Just had a short break from the daily grind of life and spent a few days on the shores of the bay of bengal. A wonderful time it was. Puri is ever young with its sand and surf with its sunrise and sunset.The madness of the sea breeze touches my heart, I become a child again running through the beach, chasing the waves , the sea gulls . Standing on the shores I was thinking ofthat force , the power which causes this ceaseless movement of volumes of water, rising , falling and rising again,








Posted by rita at 2:56 AM 0 comments
Wednesday, January 16, 2008
Net- Guru

SKYBIRD HAS SPREAD ITS WINGS AND WANTS TO SOAR HIGH ABOVE ALL THE SMALL MISFORTUNES OF LIFE













Bramhachari the first fourth part of an individual’s life was regarded as one of prolonged sacrifice. The duties of a student as laid down in the Dharmasastras are To be a celibate and live a simple life with the preceptor.
To be free from sense pleasure and material allurement.
To hear, study and assimilate the Vedas.
To dutifully serve and wait upon the teacher.
To develop all the qualities of humility, simplicity, purity of thought, cleanliness.
To eat after the preceptor has eaten, to go to bed after him and leave bed before him.
The primary intention was character formation because the Brahmacharin is the seed that will develop into the practical experience of the grihastha. Unlike modern co- educational institutions, the ‘ Gurukul’ discouraged association with women. This was the result of an in-depth analysis of human nature. In the Bhagabat Gita women is compared to fire and man to a butter-pot. However sober one may be, it is almost impossible for children to control their natural instincts when free mixing is uncensored the negative influences are rampant in the modern society. Rape is a social disease that has taken a universal form. Associated with this are murder, sexual abuse, and sexual harassment unhealthy relation among family members and in extreme cases suicide. Education was not a mechanical process of. Memorization and skill development but the fostering of spiritual values. Even the sons of royal families underwent this austere and rigorous training.

Posted by rita at 8:24 AM 0 comments
Sunday, January 13, 2008
SKYBIRD HAS SPREAD ITS WINGS AND WANTS TO SOAR HIGH ABOVE ALL THE SMALL MISFORTUNES OF LIFE









FAR FROM THE MADDING CROWD.


As the Darjeeling Mail lugged out from Sealdah station I realised that finally I had yielded to the irresistible call of the wild. My destination this Puja holiday was the Gorumara forest in the Dooars of North Bengal. ‘Lataguri’ my first stop in this episode was about four hours drive from New Jalpaiguri station through tea gardens, little rivulets and scattered tribal settlements. I put up at ‘Nakshatra Resort’ far from the madding tourist crowd. After a refreshing bath and delicious meal I ventured out to explore Nature’s empire. Very cautiously I trespassed into the quite, sun n shade filigreed domain, closely guarded by the tall, straight, thick leaved deciduous sentinels. Not a soul stirred nor a footfall heard; the only sound audible was the crackle of the dried leaves under my boots and a creek of forest beetle. I had never experienced such stillness! Accustomed to blasting air horns, blaring microphones and the constant ring of the cell-phone, the atmosphere was both eerie and exciting. The smell of the wet earth, the fragrance of unknown flowers, and a sudden wisp of coolness daubed a balm to my tired mind and sore eyes. It never occurred to me that the forest had such mesmerizing effect and like a hypnotized person I penetrated further and further into the bosom of the greenery. The ding –dong of a cow bell broke my reverie and I hurried back to the resort where the much needed tea was waiting for me. While on a jeep safari to the Medhla watch tower in the heart of the Gorumara forest, I met an elephant family; my first encounter with the wild in the wild was the scariest in the whole itinerary. It was also my first night out in the jungle, enveloped in an unknown shade of darkness, bejewelled by fireflies! Such peace such tranquillity yet so awe inspiring! The ‘Murti’ river which hems the forest is like a village belle gurgling down to meet the Teesta. Through its crystal clear water you can see the colourful pebbles in the river bed, a contrast to the polluted Ganga in Kolkata. Kingfishers swoop down in search of fish while peacocks grandly display their plumage on the banks vanity oozing out in every gait. Against the backdrop of the setting sun it was ethereal. From Lataguri I went up to ‘Tinchulay’ land of three peaks, resembling a ‘chula’ or stove, 5800 ft above sea level. For urbanites Tinchulay is a refreshing change with coniferous greens assorted with orchids, lilies and honeysuckle. Pollution free, dew-kissed, Tinchulay is ideal for bird watchers and nature ramblers. Gurung Guest House the only accommodation available is family run village tourism, contributing to the upkeep of the pristine environment at the same time providing employment to the members of their clan. Food is local cuisine, fresh from the garden vegetables, ‘Nepali roti’ and the unique ‘tree tomato’. The place is a combination of lush green tea gardens, red moss, silvery streams and rough terrain. The most breath taking view is of the rising sun, which glides through layers of soft white clouds painting the whole mountain vermillion red. Gradually the snowy peak of the Kanchenjunga turns orange, pink and golden yellow. If you want to experience this majestic phenomena walk up to the sunrise point, at 5.30 am. With the lingering fragrance of the night queen, and the traditional good-by from Ms Grung, I set out on the last lap of my journey –Darjeeling. The ‘Queen of the hills’ however has been robbed of its crown; it has been transformed into a commercial hub . It’s a tragedy that from the ‘Mall’ you can see everything except the hills! Hoteliers and Retail giants have stripped the maiden and plundered its greenery, its waterfalls, its mist and fog. Yet all is not lost. There are still the tall .slender cryptomerias (Dhupi) with their dark green branches, filling the atmosphere with an aroma which is unique to Darjeeling. The clouds still wander in groups, sometimes settling on the pine branches and sometimes floating to some unknown land. Birds still twitter in the evening sky, monkeys display their skill, but ‘Darjeeling’ is choking and we must join hands to give it space to breath. The Queen’s crown must be restored
Posted by rita at 6:23 AM 0 comments
Saturday, January 5, 2008
DHARMA

SKYBIRD HAS SPREAD ITS WINGS AND WANTS TO SOAR HIGH ABOVE ALL THE SMALL MISFORTUNES OF LIFE

In this section, issues considered include inquiry about Dharma, the range of values that it indicates, different perspectives, and methods of attaining Dharma. The constructive function of Dharma in alleviating the crisis of the modern age will also be measured.
UNDERSTANDING DHARMA.
The previous section discussed laws governing nature. Here I will concentrate on the social and ethical codes. Just as the natural laws coordinate and regulate the biotic and a biotic sphere, similarly the social and ethical codes ensure its members of a congenial and productive atmosphere. Harmony is the central theme for both, though I recognize some differences between them. (1). The former are laws, the latter are codes. As laws they are unconditionally binding on all of nature: to be a member of the natural world is to accept this law. It is inescapable. Whatever is born, or is created must die i.e. end. This is law. To the other I gave the status of codes. We are born into the natural system but the codes come after us. The former we receive the latter we acquire through lineage. The laws operating in nature are eternal in the sense that they cannot be fixed to any timeline; the social codes are definitely finite. Besides, the social codes are conditioned by the demands of its members. (2). The natural Laws make no distinction. It is applicable to everyone and to everything. The social codes are relevant for man only. (3). The former are descriptive the latter normative. (4). We cannot violate the natural laws nor transgress them the social codes likewise should be honored. Why then this dismal picture of the global society? Is it because the codes are not unconditionally binding on us or because transgressing them is not punishable in the court of law? We will find out.
From the practical and behavioral plane Dharma is the right course of action that an individual should espouse, to avoid negative flow of energy. The fact that each individual is born at a specific time, in a specific socio-economic, cultural, and ethical frame.Each existential setting contains within it certain codes which is complementary to its existence. That is its dharma .
I had suggested earlier that social codes change with time due to the shift in demands. However, these codes also change in different stages of a man’s life, in the form of ‘Aashramadharmas’. We will proceed to understand the meaning of this ‘Dharma’.
The word ‘Dharma’ has no exact rendering in English or any other language. To understand its essence it is best used untranslated. Etymologically derived from the root ‘dhri’, (to support, to nourish), the word likely suggested ‘upholder’,’ supporter’, or ‘sustainer’. As nourisher and sustainer, it is holy food ‘Annam’. (Rig V .1.187.1) (Suklayajurveda 34.7.as sustainer, as food). “Now will I glorify food, that upholds great strength…”In the O Food, is set the spirit of great gods…”() Therefore, Dharma can indicate preservation, conservation. Dharma is so called because of its nature of sustaining everything. In the Mahabharata, it is said that Dharma when violated kills the violator, when preserved it preserves man; therefore, Dharma should not be violated lest Dharma might destroy us. This is especially significant if the present ecological crisis is measured. Our unrestrained exploitation of the natural world, the damage we have inflicted on the greenery, the water bodies, the indiscriminate killing of wildlife, the continuous expansion of the cityscape, is questioning our existence today. The sustainer is, as stated in the Mahabharata, turning into our destroyer. However In Rig Veda 5.63.7, “Wise with your Law and through the Asura’s magic power ye guard the ordinances, Mitra Varuna.Ye by eternal Order govern all the world. Ye set the sun in heaven as a refulgent car” Dharma appears as fixed principles. Atharva Veda 6.51.3. Dharma is ordinances (acittya cat tava dharma yoyopima). The Atharva Veda in 7.5.1.means by Dharma first ordinances (prathama anusasana),”By the sacrifice the gods sacrificed to the sacrifice; those were the first ordinances; the word has different interpretations and one is ‘svadharma’which I understand as ‘inherent nature’. The svadharma or special quality of Agni is to consume. “For thee, purifier, flow the drops of fatness rich in oil. After thy wont vouchsafe to us the choicest boon that Gods may feast.” (Rig V.3. 21.3). Verse 7.Bk.11, looks upon ‘Dharma’ as (a) merit acquired by performing righteousness, truth, penance, kingship, toil and virtue. Dharma then is attainable through correctness of attitude and can be realized by anyone who wishes to do so. This particular interpretation explains that there is no social or economical discrimination in attaining Dharma. The Brhadarnyaka Upanishad believes that dharma is another name for satya (truth). Bk 4.14.explicates that even when Brahma had not manifested Himself completely, “then it created the righteous law (dharma) surpassing itself as a better and nobler form. This--what is the righteous law –is the ruler of the rulers (Ksatrasya Ksatram). That is why there is nothing higher than the law (dharma). Therefore, the weaker one (pitted) against the stronger one sets his hope on the law, as if on a king. Indeed that, which is this law, is the truth (satyam). That is why, when one speaks what is righteously lawful one says that he speaks the truth; because both are the same. Another indication of ‘Dharma satya, satya dharma’ is contained in the Santiparva. Here Satya is not only telling the truth but includes ‘tyaga (renunciation), ‘samata’ (same to all), ‘dama’ (restraint), ‘ksama’ (forbearance), ‘hri’ (humble), ‘anasuya’ (absence of jealousy), ‘daya’ (compassion), ‘ahimsa’ (non-violence). This law (of justice or righteousness) (dharma) is the honey of all beings; all beings are the honey of this law, but that spirit which is in this law, which is powerful and immortal which, with reference to the self, is that powerful immortal spirit consisting of law, -it is that which is this soul; this is the immortal one, this is Brahman, this the universe. Br.U.2.5.11.). This observation is significant due to its pantheistic tone. –The individual is in the whole and the whole in the universe, through the common bond of Dharma. Dharma unites the finite with the infinite and makes the finite partake of the nature of the infinite. Hence, Dharma is such an important concept of Indian thought.
It is almost impossible to formulate a single definition of ‘Dharma’, although the different Dharmasastras have agreed, that dharma is the mode of behavior of the individual as member of the society, (b) member of community (c) member of a family and (d) towards himself, yet opinions differ. The Vaisesikasutra defines Dharma from the standpoint of happiness. In the Manusmriti Dharma is that which is practiced not only by the learned but also by those who lead a life free from hatred, partiality. To act according to the dictates of one’s conscience is also dharma. Dharma is often interpreted as ‘right’. What is right? It consists in the bounds of propriety laid down in the scriptures. One who acts according to this, even though he may suffer failure –shall not turn his mind towards the unrighteousness, because even if he finds wealth acquired through bribe, untruth, he will be destroyed as a tree from the roots. ‘For a time he conquers his enemies but after all he perishes root and branch’. (MS.4.174). So, it can be said without doubt and in accordance with the Dharma sutras, that Dharma embraces the whole life of man instilling those virtues that enable him to fulfill the goals of human existence. As to information about the codes of behavior Dharma, the Vedas are considered as most authoritative. Why should anyone be instructed to follow Dharma? “Why should a man tell the truth or abstain from ‘ himsa’and cultivate other high moral qualities? The Manusmriti explains that in the midst of countless rules of outward conduct there is always insistence on the necessity to satisfy the inner man (antara-purusa) or conscience. “He shall perform, with diligence that act by performing which there arises satisfaction in his inner soul. (ManuSmriti.Discourse 4.verse 161sec 30). This is the only metaphysical reference to these practical and behavioral codes of conduct. “Alone is a creature born, and alone does it cease to be. Alone it enjoys its good deeds (MS.4.240.16). There neither father, nor mother, nor wife, nor sons, nor relations stay as companions. Spiritual merit alone remains. (MS.4.239.16). So this pursuit of Dharma is in essence for individual well-being and because …happiness and misery affect one’s self and others in the same way (Daksa iii.22) it leads from the particular to the universal. From what has been said so far, it can be said that that ‘Dharma’ is not “…a creed or religion but a mode of life or code of conduct…”(Hist of Dharmasastra, pg2 vol 2, chap. Kane).

. CLASSIFICATION OF DHARMA
Dharma is extensive. The variety of forms through which it expresses itself is Rta (natural harmony), which refers to Universal Dharma; Varna (caste) Social Dharma; Ashram (stages of life) Human Dharma; Swadharma (individual) Personal Dharma. As I have already mentioned Rta, is the source of all other Dharma.
The Dharmasastras of Apastamba, Budhayana, Gautama, Manu deal principally with the instructions for the ‘ varnas’ (classes), ‘varnadharma’; ‘ashrams (stages in the life of individual), ‘ashram dharma’; ‘vivaha’ (marriage), ‘vivahadharma’; ‘stridharma’ (the duties of women), ‘stripumdharma’ (duties of husband and wife), ‘rajdharma’ (duties of king), ‘vyavahara’ (judicial procedure and those relating to crime, inheritance, adoption.), ‘antyesti’ (rites on death). These are the universal structural frame of any society, irrespective of place, time, or religious belief. They are about the general well being of man irrespective of his religious beliefs. The sadharanadharma that applies to society in general, as inculcated by the Upanishads is ‘ satya’ or truth. Mundakopanisda says ‘only truth is victorious and not falsehood; the path of the gods is spread out by truth. Truth is the primary dharma, besides daya (compassion), dana (charity), dama (self-restraint). The Santiparva162.21.also emphasizes on the non-injury to all beings in thought word and deed, good will and charity are the eternal dharma of the good. To these the Gautama Dharma sutra adds ksanti (forbearance), anasuya (freedom from envy), and sauca (purity of body, speech and thought). Mangala (doing what is commended), akarpanya (not demeaning oneself before others), asprha (not hankering after sensual pleasures) are the qualities that can an individual non-different from the Brahma. The Vasistha sutra (x.30) says that avoiding backbiting, jealousy, pride, egoism, unbelief, self-praise, abuse of others, deceit, covetousness, delusion, is the dharma of all.Apastamba.Dharmasutra (1.8.23.3-6) calls upon all to eradicate faults that tend to destruction, such as anger, avarice, hypocrisy and to cultivate those qualities of the mind that lead to the highest good for the individual and the society. Vasistha (4.4.) says that truthfulness, freedom from anger generosity, ahimsa and the procreation of offspring are the common dharma of all varnas. ‘The man who is unrighteous i.e. who indulges in acts forbidden by the scriptures, such as incest, he whose artha is misbegotten, whose wealth is acquired in the form of bribes or offered for telling lies, and he who is always addicted to injuring others, never obtain happiness in this world. (MS.4.170, 13). The sadharana dharma points that in the scale of values mere performance of religious ceremonies was insignificant and the highest value was attributed to the moral qualities of the soul.
.
Varnadharma
The issue of ‘varnadharma’ is the most misunderstood and misinterpreted, but its importance in Indian society cannot be ignored. A proper understanding of ‘varnadharma’ is necessary if the true spirit of Indian socio-cultural history is to be appreciated. The common tendency is to consider ‘Varna’ as equivalent to ‘caste’. The word ‘caste’ however is of foreign origin derived from the Portuguese word ‘casta’, meaning race, breed, or lineage. The root word for ‘varna’is ‘vri’which is indicative of occupation and not of lineage. ‘Varna’ also stands for colour, but it can be understood as ‘variety’. From the social aspect, this rendering appears to me as the most acceptable .By ‘variety’ I will mean ‘human potentiality, and by varnashramadharma the social institution allocating occupation according to capability. Therefore, ‘varnashramadharma’ is the basis for proper utilization of human resource of the sub-continent and at the same time, fostering social welfare and prosperity of the then society. The first reference to the origin of varnadharma comes from the Rig Vedas.
“A thousand heads hath Purusa, a thousand
eyes, a thousand feet.
On every side pervading earth he fills a
space ten fingers wide.
This Purusa is all that yet hath been and
all that is to be;
The Lord of immortality which waxes
greater still by food.
When they divided Purusa how many
portions did they make?
What do they call his mouth, his arms?
What do they call his thighs and feet?
The Brahman was his mouth, of both his
arms was the Rajanya made.
His thighs became the Vaisya, from his
Feet the Sudra was produced. (10.90.1.2.11.12.) This is the only passage that enumerates the four varnas. This creation hymn, the ‘Purusa Sukta’, is a symbolic representation of the relation and interdependence of the whole and the various parts. Like the body of an individual with all its parts is a unit, so also the different members constitute society; the difference being a manifestation of their inherent qualities or gunas. The important message is that the distinction was _not based on birth or religion, but on the innate nature or svabhadharma. The svabha is determined by the preponderance of the Gunas, Svatta, Rajas, and Tamas. In the Bhagavat Gita Lord Krishna declares “caturvarnyam maya srstam gunakarmavibhagasha. One may raise the question are we born with the gunas or do we acquire them through experience. I feel a strong urge to accept the former; the gunas are inherent qualities that is at the same time the individua’ls identity and distinction. As the five elements are our basic constituents yet they differ from one another by virtue of their inherent qualities, similarly human personality display such a wide variety due to the presence of the gunas in varying degrees. Keeping individual dissimilarity in the background the then sociologists made a general classification of society into Brahmans (svatta), Ksahatrya (rajas), Vaisyas (raja-tama), and Sudras (tamas) and assigned them different functions. We will now enquire into the specific characteristic of the three gunas. ‘Svatta’has been declared to be knowledge, ‘Tamas’ to be ignorance, and ‘Rajas’, to be love and hate; - Such is the nature of these, all-pervading and interpenetrating all beings. –(MS.12.26). It is further clarified in (MS), that Svatta is attended with the feeling of bliss, purity, and calmess, Rajas with desire or longing for sensual objects and pain associated with it. “What is mixed with stupification, undiscernible, of the nature of sensual objects, incapable of being reasoned about and uncognisable, _one should recognize as ‘Tamas’. (MS.12.29).A detailed analysis of the gunas revel that “Vedic study, austerity, knowledge, purity, control over the organs, practice of virtue and meditation on the soul,-are the characteristics of the quality of ‘Svatta’. Proneness to undertake work, impatience, commission of improper acts, constant addiction to sensual objects are the characteristics of the quality of ‘Rajas’. Avarice, drowsiness, irresolution, cruelty, disbelief, bad character, habit of begging, and inattentiveness are the characteristics of the quality of ‘Tamas’.”(MS 12.31,32,33.) It is very essential that we understand the distinguishing features of the three gunas as explained by Manu. “Pleasure is the distinguishing feature of ‘Tamas’, wealth of ‘Rajas’, and spiritual merit of ‘Svatta’. An individual is a combination of all the ‘Gunas’, but the predominant one that decides his Varna. “Know Svatta, Rajas and Tamas to be the three qualities of the Self, by means of which the Great one completely pervades all beings. Whichsoever of these qualities wholly predominates in a body, it makes the owner of that body abound in that quality.” (MS.12.7.24, 25.) This is an explanation from the social, biological, psychological, and economical point of view, confirming the sagacity of the Vedic philosophers. If we consider the society as a living organism then we accept the biological attitude that all existing things living and non-living, inherit the three gunas in varying degrees. Wisdom, intelligence, honesty, goodness and other positive qualities of the ‘Svattica’, passion, pride, valor of the ‘Rajashik,’ or dullness, stupidity, and other negative characters of the ‘Tamasik’. Different levels of these qualities indicate the aptitude of the individual and determine his vocation. This is perhaps the introduction to’ screening tests’, ‘entrance examinations’, or ‘personality tests’ of the modern arena. Let us for a moment consider the fourfold division as a mere label and accept the fact that everyone is born in this world with certain natural qualities and certain limitations. From a careful observation of these highs and lows, the law of ‘Varna’ was deduced in accordance with the intelligence level and personality trait of the individuals. Where comes the distinctions of high and low birth, fair or dark skin? The Varnadharma should not be rejected because we fail to realize its significance. Psychologically it generates a positive feeling, because it guarantees to each that in which he is most capable of and at the same time, preventing uncalled for competition with his fellow me. This great law has been disregarded and defamed. Today we are trying to grapple with life totally disregarding the question of capability, thereby fostering social anarchy, insecurity, and demoralization.
Economically, its value was great in the Vedic social frame and in our present setting; it highlights the complex stratification of community interaction between the scholarly (Brahman), the lawmakers, law enforcers (Kshyatrya), bankers, executives, merchants (Vaishyas), workers, artisans, (Sudras). These occupations are common to all societies, but we have recognized them as law of our being, and made use of it in regulating our social conduct. Minus the names and the word ‘Dharma’, it is found universally. Where come religion and how can such an open code be reserved for any particular philosophy? It ensured work for all and demanded from each that in which he excels. “Men should be appointed to hold office to which they are best suited.” (Matsya Purana, chap 215,81-83.).
. The human body can work efficiently if the parts and organs are in sound and strong condition. If any part is diseased or weak, the body will not give its optimum. Society is also a huge machine. The individuals and communities are its parts. If the parts are weak and broken, the machine will not work, because a machine is nothing without the constituent parts. Society ceases to function when the institutions fail to perform their assigned duties. Teaching, studying, sacrificing for oneself, sacrificing for others, giving, and receiving gifts are the functions of the Brahman. For the Kshyatrya, carrying of arms and weapons, and for the Vaishya, trade, cattle-tending and agriculture; the Sudras are born from the feet of God, the ‘Prithvi’ and like mother Earth, renders selfless service to all animate and inanimate life.
the Varnadharma of the Brahmans Manu ordained “…Teaching, Studying, Sacrificing and officiating at sacrifices, as also the giving and accepting of gifts,. The discipline for the teacher - He should get up early in the morning, brush the teeth, take ritual bath, perform agnihothra and aupasana, and should teach the disciples in this ceremonially pure condition. Of the king, (Kshyatrya) Matsya said: -“A king should recollect his Kshyatrya dharma and never retreat from war. Not to retire from battlefield, to protect his subjects, to serve the Brahmans are the foremost duties of the King .He should also protect the distressed, the infirm, the widows and provide them with boarding and lodging and endowments and adjust the Varnashrama rules, should reclaim and restore the fallen ones in their respective religions, should give grain, cloth, oil, utensils, etc .to the good of all orders; should fulfill the objects of the ascetics and worship them like the Devas, and never disrespect those who have done good to him. He should think of acquiring wealth with the eyes of a crane, and he should show valour like that of a lion, he should take to his heels like a wolf, collect money like a hare, strike hard on others like a boar, he should be of variegated manners like a peacock, devoted like a dog, be afraid like a crow, speak sweet like a cuckoo. He should always remain within his regal paraphernalia. He should protect the distressed and practice self-restraint. He should not interfere with a snake or indulge with an unknown woman. (Matsya Purana chap 215.60-64; 69-74). “ For the Vaishya, tending cattle, giving of gifts, sacrificing and studying; as also trade, money lending and cultivating of land. For the Sudra the Lord ordained only one function: the ungrudging service of the said castes.
The caste just mentioned is not to be understood as we do today. It was determined by the individuals approach towards life. Then only could Ashvattama the son of a powerful Brahman adopt the role of a warrior and fight at Kurukshetra. Similarly, Vishvamitra who was born in a Kshyatrya family, later qualified as a powerful Brahman. As they are defined by the roles they play in society, duties and privileges are allotted to them accordingly. It is true that recognition of varnadharma is by no means a complete answer to all our social problems; can we deny that it can at least provide a framework that is true for all societies in all parts of the globe.
. Ashram dharma
Ashram –to exert or labour. Four ashrams have been accepted and every individual is to spend a part of his life in each of the four ashrams to fulfill his obligations to his society, ancestors, and family and to himself. They can be compared to a flight of steps with the highest leading to harmony within and without.
Ashram Dharma aims at an ethical organization of an individual’s personal life with a view to a fruitful synthesis of the way of action (pravrtti) and the way of renunciation (nivrtti). The ashrams denote the main stages in an individual’s life. The four ashramas are 1.Bramhacharya-the life of a student.2.Grahastha-the life of a householder.3.Sannyas the life of self restraint.4.Banprastha-the life of a mendicant.
Bramhachari the first fourth part of an individual’s life was regarded as one of prolonged sacrifice. The duties of a student as laid down in the Dharmasastras are generally
· To be a celibate and live a simple life with the preceptor.
· To be free from sense pleasure and material allurement.
· To hear, study and assimilate the Vedas.
· To dutifully serve and wait upon the teacher.
· To develop all the qualities of humility, simplicity, purity of thought, cleanliness.
· To eat after the preceptor has eaten, to go to bed after him and leave bed before him.
The primary intention was character formation because the Brahmacharin is the seed that will develop into the practical experience of the grihastha. Unlike modern co- educational institutions, the ‘ Gurukul’ discouraged association with women. This was the result of an in-depth analysis of human nature. In the Bhagabat Gita women is compared to fire and man to a butter-pot. However sober one may be, it is almost impossible for children to control their natural instincts when free mixing is uncensored the negative influences are rampant in the modern society. Rape is a social disease that has taken a universal form. Associated with this are murder, sexual abuse, and sexual harassment unhealthy relation among family members and in extreme cases suicide. Education was not a mechanical process of. Memorization and skill development but the fostering of spiritual values. Even the sons of royal families underwent this austere and rigorous training.
With marriage, a person enters, the Grahastha, or the life of a householder. (25-50 years). “Be ye (two) just here; be not separated; attain your whole life-time, sporting with sons and grandsons, rejoicing, well-homed. (Athar Veda 14.1.22) A normal person requires a mate because he has biological and emotional urges. These are basic demands yet to bring these under control the institution of marriage has great significance. Marriage is not merely legitimizing physical demands, but it is only through marriage that an individual is elevated to the second stage of life. Children are the essence of marriage and they endow marriage with social responsibilities. What would the social situation be if sensual gratification were allowed indiscriminately? Abandoned infants, HIV and other sexually transmitted diseases, abortions and nobody’s children roaming aimlessly. Because “From unblamable marriages unblamable offspring is born to men;”(MS 3.42). Women were not looked down upon, nor relegated but husband and wife are co-partners in their spiritual progress, and the family provides the first training ground for social virtues. A healthy householder is the foundation of a healthy society because the proper teaching of the child is the duty of the father Teaching of the child consists in explaining to him what he should do and what he should not do. If the boy fails to understand his duties then he should be led by the hand, like a blind man, and made to fulfill them. This again occasions a comparison with modern society where child rearing is left to professional hands. This adversely affects the parent –child relation. As regards the domestic mode of life, four kinds of conduct have been laid down by the learned.
· Keeping a store of grain sufficient to last for three years
· Keeping a store to last for one year
· Providing for the day without thinking of the morrow
· Collecting grain after the manner of the pigeon. This is known as ‘kapoti’.
The duties of the householder with reference to the mode of conduct are,
· A person following the first kind of conduct may practice six duties (sacrifice on his own account, sacrifice on account of others, teaching, learning, making presentations and accepting gifts)
· He who observes the second kind of conduct should practice three (learning, giving and accepting).
· He who observes the third kind should practice only two duties, (learning and giving)
· The householder practicing the fourth kind of domesticity should observe only learning the scriptures.
From this it is not difficult to assess the pragmatic attitude of the ancient seers. The economic condition of an individual determined his social responsibilities and this was the reason for a society so stable and so enduring! Merit must be given to the authors of the dharmasastras for patronage it gave to the scholars and relived them of all commitments. This is even more significant today, where every one attempts to do every thing and often ends up in failure, frustration, and fiasco. The modern ‘brain-drain’ is another instance of the negative conditions of our society. In the Gautama Sutra (chap 5. 25.) pronounces that “Before (a householder eats) he shall feed his guests, the infants, the sick people, the pregnant women, the females under his protection, the very aged men and those of low condition.” ManuSmriti (3.72) declares “He who does not make offerings to the five-viz., Gods, Guests, Dependents, Pitrs and Himself, -does not live, even though breathing.” the home t is the first social circle of the individual. Its importance is because for the idea of love that it creates in its members and the sacrifice it helps you to make. In fact, a health family is the foundation of an ideal society. Because what is society if not an extended family! The Great emphasis was placed on direct social interaction and it was duty of the householder to receive guests with honour. This was particularly beneficial to the members because it enabled interaction, communiqué, and social integrity, a contrast to the present day society where we exist side by side but do not interrelate. The Grahastha was obliged to entertain men from all walks of society but “he shall not honour, even with speech, imposters, those who follow improper occupations, those who are cat-like in their behavior, hypocrites, logicians, and those who behave like herons.” (MS 4.30).
The duties of the householder are all exceedingly meritorious because only the learned are entitled to ‘Householder ship’. Grihastha is the sine qua non for development of lineage-a necessary link between the dead past and unborn future. He not only holds or supports the familial but also the social. The scriptures of this country were concerned less with ritualistic activities and more with social and moral training. No wonder ‘Dharma’ has taken such a variety of interpretations. The Grihastha Ashram is not a social license for the gratification of physical and personal necessity, but extends far beyond. As all living beings depend on air, water to subsist, similarly the other three ashrams are dependent on the ‘Grihastha’. This is the unique feature of Indian society. It works in harmony for the benefit of all. The householder not only provides facilities for the study of the Vedas, but also gives sustenance to the other three who live on ‘biksha’. The ‘Grihastha’is supposed to be the pillar and consequently its ‘Dharma’ is to nourish those values which blossom and foster the culture of a country. He is therefore instructed to follow a regular and disciplined life pattern.
The householder should never sleep during the day, or during the first part of the night or last part thereof. He should never eat before feeding the guests, brahmacharis, and sannyasinsHe should never summon his wife to bed except in her seasons. He should never eat before feeding the guests, brahmacharis, and sannyasins. He should never summon his wife to bed except in her seasons. ‘May mutual fidelity continue till death’,-this in brief should be understood as the highest duty between husband and wife.
He should be content with one’s own wedded wife. (A check on extra marital relationship). He should be self restrained, avoid malice and disputes with all his relatives, kindred and workers. The householder is expected to show respect to the eldest brother as his preceptor, treat his wife and son as his own body, his servant as his shadow, and act accordingly. The violence afflicted on young house cleaners, to the extent of setting them ablaze (The statesman 23rd January 2006), besides physical torture and sexual exploitation is a breach of conduct of the householder. If we could only understand the significance of the ‘Ashram Dharma’, then disapproving stimulus like drug addiction, neglect of the elderly, child desertion, broken marriages could be curbed. Indian philosophy has always focused on the impermanence of social fame and material comfort without denying there practical worth. Liberation is the essence and this can be attained through withdrawal from all that one had accumulated through the years. The concept of ‘Niskama Karma’, or detachment
When the skin wrinkles, the hair turns gray or grandchildren are born, one is ready for the third stage of life Vanaprastha. The person qualified to enter the life of a hermit, (Vanaprastha), must abandon all longing for objects of sense, material goods, for the care and comfort of his domestic life. When we have welcomed the children of our children,
And the hair of our head has gone gray,
It is time withdrawing quietly from the world,
We set out on the journey to our refuge in the arms of the forest
We travel the path of renunciation,
Taking guidance from that design, we uncover deep within our hearts
To devote our lives to the realms of the spirits
To become elders, patient in our guidance and advice
To the youngsters. This is the third phase of life (50-70 years), when an individual retreats from the duties of a householder and disengages himself from all family ties. The Manusmrti gives a detailed account of the hermit’s life. Having given up cultivated food and all his belongings, he shall repair to the forest, either making over his wife to his sons or along with her. A person in the vanaprastha should not eat grains grown by tilling of the fields. Nor should he eat grains cooked in fire. He should eat fruit ripened by sunshine. He should have no permanent house, or possess any store. He must avoid destruction of seeds. He should wear either skin or a bit of cloth, always engaged in Vedic studies, follow a simple vegetarian diet, make no effort to obtain pleasure-giving objects, and maintain celibacy. Verse (MS 6.27,28), states that, He shall receive alms just enough for subsistence while dwelling in the forest, that too in his hollowed hand. I have, in this brief survey of the ashram dharma found enough instances to provide evidence on the deep psychological insight of the ancient seers. Minus all the rituals, the Ashrams are a universal discipline pertaining to the different demands and requirements in different stages of life. In the fast track of this century, old age is treated as a social waste. Entering upon the third phase of life when the physique wanes and the mind gradually starts to sediment what could be a better answer than this voluntary recluse. Today Vanaprastha will not mean retreating to a forest, nor living on alms, then shall we dismiss it? The Ashram dharmas are distinctive by being adaptive to different social conditions. Therefore, if we have the desire we can accept this ashram from our individual social situation. The philosophy here is to realize that the body is nothing but a combination of five elements. The elements are permanent but the body is not. Therefore, the only way to attain happiness, ‘anandam’, is to renounce the transitory, and realize the ultimate nature of things. What are we? A combination of skin, bones, muscles, blood, semen urine, stool, heat and so on, which comes from the five elements. To these elements we will return once the body is dismembered. Therefore, Vanaprastha is the vestibule for the ultimate renunciation
“Vanaprasthasya vaksyami.
niyaman muni-sammatan
Yan asthaya munin gacched
rsi-lokan uhanjasa. Having thus passed the third part of his life in the forest, the man shall, during the fourth part, renounce all attachments and go forth. (MS 6.4.33). After 50 years, the physical strength gradually weakens, but there is experience about the instability of all worldly relations and he thus turns towards his inner self-. His relation is only with his inner self, with the natural world upon which he depends for his subsistence, renouncing, all wealth, and worldly pleasures, and is called a ‘sannayasi’. Having full control of mind and senses, detached and fearless, he engages in deep self-analysis and pledges total harmlessness towards all.
The ‘chaturashram’or four fold stages of life is very significant if we consider the psychophysical development of man. In his youth, the child is open to ideas and instructions, since it is the formative years and no thoughts have taken definite shape. His capabilities and energies are unused and this is the best period when it can be channalized. The modern education system also uses this period to give the child his first lessons on socialization through Montessori and Play methods of learning. Upon emerging from the adolescent stage and emerging into manhood, when the psychosexual demands require satisfaction, the individual enters the Grihastha or householder’s life, enjoying worldly pleasures without guilt. This is perhaps the most active stage in the life of an individual, where he has duties not only towards himself but also towards the society. The post 50 is like a river in its middle stage when there is a decline in speed but not in fertile alluvium that it deposits as it journeys to meet the ‘Ocean’. Realizing the instability of worldly relations, he now turns towards the quintessence. The progressive non-attachment finally leads him to emancipation.
The movement of life is everywhere the same. It can be compared to that of the sun. Dawn –young, soft, yellow-orange celibacy bramhacari. As morning progresses it glows, radiating heat supporting all life like the householder, an inexhaustible source of energy. As it moves away from the zenith, it gradually withdraws its rays; casting shadows and providing shade to weary travelers, like the hermit in orange-red attire, symbolizing sacrifice and penance. It leaves its glow when twilight falls, though it is no longer visible above the horizon. This simple framework of life planning has a great value in this contemporary global society. Though we are in a world of diverse cultures, religions, philosophies, attitudes, it is the eternal model applicable to humankind in general.


Posted by rita at 7:41 AM 0 comments
Friday, December 28, 2007

BUTCHERED!


WE CALL OURSELVES CIVILIZED DONT WE? THE BRUTAL ACT WHICH ENDED THE LIFE OF BENAZIR BHUTTO POSES A QUESTION TO OUR STATUS AS HUMAN BEINGS. nOT THAT ANY KILLING POLITICAL OR OTHERWISE IN ANY COUNTRY SHOULD GO WITHOUT CONDEMNATION BUT ARE WE GOING TO CARRY ON LIKE THIS/ WHERE ARE WE HEADING TO AND FOR WHAT IS WHAT MUST BE SORTED OUT AND RIGHT NOW. I request viewers of my blog to leave behind their comments and opnions. It is a dark day in the history ofdemocracy.
Posted by rita at 2:13 AM 0 comments
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rita
Kolkata, West Bengal, India
I am an Indian, living in kolkata. A lecturer in an undergraduate collage, my teaching area is Philosophy. My hobby is reading and exchanging ideas. I intend to make this world a better place to live in by spreading environmental awareness.
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